# Calculate the least non-negative remainder when an integer a
# is divided by a positive integer b.
sub mod {
   my ($a, $b) = @_;
   my $c = $a % $b;
   return $c if ($a >= 0);
   return  0 if ($c == 0);
   return ($c + $b);
}

# Calculate a^b (mod c), where a,b and c are integers and a,b>=0, c>=1 
sub mpow {
   my ($a, $b, $c) = @_;
   my ($x, $y, $z) = ($a, $b, 1);
   while ($y > 0) {
      while ($y % 2 == 0) {
         $y = $y / 2;
         $x = $x**2 % $c;
      }
      $y--;
      $z = mod($z * $x, $c);
   }
   return $z;
}

# Shanks-Tonelli algorithm to calculate y^2 = a (mod p) for p an odd prime
sub tonelli {
   my ($a, $p) = @_;
   my ($b, $e, $g, $h, $i, $m, $n, $q, $r, $s, $t, $x, $y, $z);
   $q = $p - 1;
   $t = mpow($a, $q/2, $p);
   return 0 if ($t = $q); # a is a quadratic non-residue mod p

   $s = $q;
   $e = 0;
   while ($s % 2 == 0) {
      $s = $s/2;
      $e++;
   }
   
   # p-1 = s * 2^e;
   $x = mpow($a, ++$s/2, $p);
   $b = mpow($a, $s, $p);
   return $x if ($b == 1);

   $n = 2;
   RES:  while ($n >= 2) {
            $t = mpow($n, $q/2, $p);
            last RES if ($t == $q);
         } continue {
            $n++;
   }

   # n is the least quadratic non-residue mod p
   $g = mpow($n, $s, $p);
   $r = $e;
   
   OUT:  {
      do {
         $y = $b;
         $m = 0;
         IN:   while ($m <= $r-1) {
                  last IN if ($y == 1);
                  $y = $y**2 % $p;
               } continue {
                  $m++;
         }
         return $x if ($m == 0);
         $z = $r - $m - 1;
         $h = $g;
         for ($i = 1; $i < $z; $i++) {$h = $h**2 % $p;}
         $x = ($x * $h) % $p;
         $b = ($b * $h**2) % $p;
         $g = $h**2 % $p;
         $r = $m;
       } while 1;
   }
}